Geographical Variability in Mortality in Urban Areas: A Joint Analysis of 16 Causes of Death.

The geographical distribution of mortality has frequently been studied. Nevertheless, those studies often consider isolated causes of death. In this work, we aim to study the geographical distribution of mortality in urban areas, in particular, in 26 Spanish cities. We perform an overall study of 16 causes of death, considering that their geographical patterns could be dependent and estimating the dependence between the causes of death. We study the deaths in these 26 cities during the period 1996-2015 at the census tract level. A multivariate disease mapping model is used in order to solve the potential small area estimation problems that these data could show. We find that most of the geographical patterns found show positive correlations. This suggests the existence of a transversal geographical pattern, common to most causes of deaths, which determines those patterns to a higher/lower extent depending on each disease. The causes of death that exhibit that underlying pattern in a more prominent manner are chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, and cirrhosis for men and cardiovascular diseases and dementias for women. Such findings are quite consistent for most of the cities in the study. The high positive correlation found between geographical patterns reflects the existence of both high and low-risk areas in urban settings, in general terms for nearly all the causes of death. Moreover, the high-risk areas found often coincide with neighborhoods known for their high deprivation. Our results suggest that dependence among causes of death is a key aspect to be taken into account when mapping mortality, at least in urban contexts.

Efecto producido por la población institucionalizada en la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad en áreas pequeñas de Euskadi (España) / Effect of the population in collective dwellings on small-area mortality risk estimation in the Basque Country region (Spain)

OBJETIVO: Cuantificar el efecto que tiene la inclusión de la población institucionalizada en la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad en las secciones censales de Euskadi (España) para las principales causas de mortalidad en el periodo 1996-2003. MÉTODO: Estudio ecológico transversal por áreas pequeñas. Se analizaron las principales causas de mortalidad y por sexo. RESULTADOS: Al analizar el efecto general que tiene en todas las secciones con población institucionalizada se ha visto que no hay apenas ningún efecto reseñable en hombres ni en mujeres. En cambio, cuando se han seleccionado las áreas geográficas donde la población institucionalizada supone un porcentaje importante, más del 10% de la población de esa área, sí se ha observado un efecto incrementando la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad. CONCLUSIONES: El efecto que tiene la inclusión de la población institucionalizada se ve claramente en aquellas causas de mortalidad relacionadas con una mayor dependencia o fragilidad, y por lo tanto con estar en una residencia de personas mayores, como son las demencias y la enfermedad de Alzheimer, y la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica, sobrestimando el riesgo de mortalidad en torno a un 8% y un 4%, respectivamente, en esas áreas

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings on the estimation of mortality risk in the census areas of the Basque Country (Spain) for the main causes of mortality in the period 1996-2003. METHOD: Small-area ecological cross-sectional study. The main causes of mortality by sex were analyzed. RESULTS: When the general effect on all areas with a a population in collective dwellings was analyzed, hardly any noticeable effect was seen on either men or women. On the other hand, an effect was found when selecting the areas where the population in collective dwellings is more than 10% of the area's population. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings clearly seen in causes of mortality, such as dementia and Alzheimer's disease, and in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, related to greater dependence or frailty, and therefore related to being in a nursing or elderly persons' home, over-estimating the risk of mortality by approximately 8% and 4%, respectively, in these geographical areas

Inequalities in participation in colorectal cancer screening programmes: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major public health problem due to its incidence and mortality. Screening programmes help decrease its impact on the population through early detection. However, the uneven distribution of social determinants of health can cause inequalities. The aim of this study is to identify the social inequalities in the participation in CRC screening programmes. METHODS: A systematic review of the literature was carried out, searching in both health and social databases for papers published since 2000 in English, Spanish, Portuguese and French. The search strategies combined terms regarding screening, CRC, participation and social inequalities. Included papers were quantitative or qualitative primary studies analyzing gender and socioeconomic inequalities in the participation in CRC screening programmes implemented by public and private health-care providers and addressing 45- to 75-year-old population. RESULTS: A total of 96 studies, described in 102 articles, were included. Most were quantitative observational studies and analyzed population-based screening programmes. They were carried out mainly in the UK (n=29) and the USA (n=18). Participation in screening programmes varied from 1.1% to 82.8% using several methods. A total of 87 studies assessed participation by sex and one focussed on men, but only two provided an analysis from a gender perspective. Although men are at a higher risk of developing CRC, they generally were less likely to participate in screening programmes. Screening attendance was higher among the least deprived areas. CONCLUSIONS: Gender and socioeconomic inequalities in CRC screening participation should be addressed through the design of tailored interventions with a multidimensional focus.

Health Impact Assessments in Spain: Have They Been Effective?

BACKGROUND: Health impact assessment (HIA) has scarcely been developed in Spain, in comparison with other European countries. Moreover, little is known about the effectiveness of HIA, taking into account direct impacts-changes on the decision-making process-as well as indirect impacts or those related to the process outcomes. From this broad perspective of HIA usefulness, the purpose was to assess the effectiveness of five HIAs carried out in Spain at the local level, and the role played by context and process factors on these impacts. METHODS: We carried out a qualitative study based on 14 interviews to HIAs participants from different sectors. A documentary review and nonparticipant observation techniques were implemented for an in depth understanding. RESULTS: The direct effectiveness of the HIAs was partial, but they had indirect effectiveness in all cases. The institutional and socio-political context, however, was not favorable to effectiveness. The elements of the process were largely determined by the context, although their influence, mediated by the role of proactive individuals, favored the effectiveness of the HIAs. CONCLUSIONS: When assessing HIA effectiveness, it is important to take into account a broad perspective on the nature of impacts and those factors influencing direct and indirect effectiveness. In Spain, the institutional and sociopolitical context was less favorable to HIA effectiveness than process-related factors. In order to implement the Health in All Policies strategy, will be necessary to improve context-related factors, such as institutional facilitators for HIA and democratic quality.

[Effect of the population in collective dwellings on small-area mortality risk estimation in the Basque Country region (Spain)]. / Efecto producido por la población institucionalizada en la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad en áreas pequeñas de Euskadi (España).

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings on the estimation of mortality risk in the census areas of the Basque Country (Spain) for the main causes of mortality in the period 1996-2003. METHOD: Small-area ecological cross-sectional study. The main causes of mortality by sex were analyzed. RESULTS: When the general effect on all areas with a a population in collective dwellings was analyzed, hardly any noticeable effect was seen on either men or women. On the other hand, an effect was found when selecting the areas where the population in collective dwellings is more than 10% of the area's population. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings clearly seen in causes of mortality, such as dementia and Alzheimer's disease, and in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, related to greater dependence or frailty, and therefore related to being in a nursing or elderly persons' home, over-estimating the risk of mortality by approximately 8% and 4%, respectively, in these geographical areas.

Estimación de indicadores de salud en áreas pequeñas a partir de datos de la Encuesta de Salud de Euskadi / Small area estimation of health indicators based on data from the Basque Country Health Survey

Las encuestas de salud son una herramienta clave para la toma de decisiones en políticas de salud y para la planificación de los servicios de salud. El uso de métodos estadísticos para áreas pequeñas que utilizan información de diferentes ámbitos geográficos puede resultar útil para estimar indicadores de salud a una escala geográfica menor que la originalmente considerada en el diseño de una encuesta

Health surveys are a key tool for decision-making in health policies and health services planning. The use of small-area statistical methods that use information at different geographic levels may be useful for estimating health indicators at a lower geographical level than originally considered in the survey design

[Small area estimation of health indicators based on data from the Basque Country Health Survey]. / Estimación de indicadores de salud en áreas pequeñas a partir de datos de la Encuesta de Salud de Euskadi.

Health surveys are a key tool for decision-making in health policies and health services planning. The use of small-area statistical methods that use information at different geographic levels may be useful for estimating health indicators at a lower geographical level than originally considered in the survey design.

Urban regeneration as population health intervention: a health impact assessment in the Bay of Pasaia (Spain).

BACKGROUND: An important health issue in urban areas is how changes arising from the regeneration of city-areas affect social determinants of health and equity. This paper examines the impacts attributable to a new fish market and to delays in the regeneration of a port area in a deteriorated region of the Bay of Pasaia (Spain). Potential differential impacts on local residents and socially vulnerable groups were evaluated to determine health inequalities. METHODS: An in-depth, prospective and concurrent Health-Impact-Assessment (HIA) focused on equity was conducted by the regional Public Health Department, following the Merseyside guidelines. Data from different sources was triangulated and impacts were identified using qualitative and quantitative methods. RESULTS: The intervention area is characterised by poor social, environmental, and health indicators. The distinctness of the two projects generates contrasting health and inequality impacts: generally positive for the new fish market and negative for the port area. The former creates recreational spaces and improves urban quality and social cohesion. By contrast, inaction and stagnation of the project in the port area perpetuates deterioration, a lack of safety, and poor health, as well as increased social frustration. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to assessing the health impacts of both projects this HIA promoted intersectoral partnerships, boosted a holistic and positive view of health and incorporated health and equity into the political discourse. Community-level participatory action enabled public health institutions to respond to new urban planning challenges and responsibilities in a more democratic manner.

Evaluación del impacto en salud de intervenciones de regeneración en la bahía de Pasaia: percepciones de la población afectada / Health impact assessment of regeneration projects in Pasaia bay (Spain): perceptions of the affected population

Objetivo. Conocer los impactos en salud percibidos por vecinos y agentes sociales como consecuencia de dos intervenciones de regeneración urbana (nueva lonja de pescado y reordenación de La Herrera Norte/Oeste) en la bahía de Pasaia (Gipuzkoa, España) que han sido objeto de una evaluación del impacto en salud (EIS). Método. Metodología cualitativa. Muestreo teórico e intencional. Generación de información mediante 18 entrevistas personales y cinco grupos de discusión. Análisis conforme al modelo de análisis sociológico del discurso. Triangulación y contraste de los resultados preliminares entre miembros del equipo y participantes del estudio. Resultados. Se identifican cuatro áreas interrelacionadas de impacto en salud: calidad urbana, conectividad, cohesión social y, en menor grado, empleo. Se señalan los aspectos concretos de mejora a tener en cuenta en cada ámbito, así como la influencia del contexto sociopolítico y las concepciones sobre la salud. Las repercusiones del proceso de ejecución de las obras y las diferentes perspectivas según los roles y perfiles sociales de los participantes constituyen hallazgos asimismo importantes. Conclusiones. El conocimiento de las percepciones y expectativas de los afectados mediante los métodos cualitativos aporta elementos e interrelaciones novedosas y necesarias para la aplicación de la EIS como herramienta de mejora de la salud y de participación ciudadana (AU)

Aim. To determine the health impact perceived by residents and social players involved in two urban regeneration interventions (a new fish market and the redevelopment of North/West Herrera) in Pasaia Bay (Gipuzkoa, Spain) that have been the subject of a health impact assessment (HIA). Method. Qualitative methodology was used with theoretical and intentional sampling. Information was obtained through 18 personal interviews and five discussion groups and was analyzed in accordance with the sociological analysis model of discourse. The preliminary results were triangulated and contrasted among the team members and those taking part in the study. Results. Four interrelated areas of health impact were identified: urban quality, connectivity, social cohesion, and-to a lesser extent-employment. Specific aspects for improvement were indicated for each field, as well as the influence of the sociopolitical context and conceptions of health. Other significant findings were the impact of the process of carrying out the building work and the distinct perspectives due to the differing roles and social profiles of participants. Conclusions. Knowledge of the perceptions and expectations of affected individuals through qualitative methods provides novel elements and interrelations that are needed to apply HIA as a tool for improving health and for citizen participation (AU)

[Health impact assessment of regeneration projects in Pasaia Bay (Spain): perceptions of the affected population]. / Evaluación del impacto en salud de intervenciones de regeneración en la bahía de Pasaia: percepciones de la población afectada.

AIM: To determine the health impact perceived by residents and social players involved in two urban regeneration interventions (a new fish market and the redevelopment of North/West Herrera) in Pasaia Bay (Gipuzkoa, Spain) that have been the subject of a health impact assessment (HIA). METHOD: Qualitative methodology was used with theoretical and intentional sampling. Information was obtained through 18 personal interviews and five discussion groups and was analyzed in accordance with the sociological analysis model of discourse. The preliminary results were triangulated and contrasted among the team members and those taking part in the study. RESULTS: Four interrelated areas of health impact were identified: urban quality, connectivity, social cohesion, and-to a lesser extent-employment. Specific aspects for improvement were indicated for each field, as well as the influence of the sociopolitical context and conceptions of health. Other significant findings were the impact of the process of carrying out the building work and the distinct perspectives due to the differing roles and social profiles of participants. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of the perceptions and expectations of affected individuals through qualitative methods provides novel elements and interrelations that are needed to apply HIA as a tool for improving health and for citizen participation.

Dose-response association of physical activity with acute myocardial infarction: do amount and intensity matter?

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to analyze the dose-response association between leisure time physical activity (PA) practice and myocardial infarction (MI), considering not only the total amount but also the amount of PA at different levels of intensity, and to determine whether these associations were modified by age. METHOD: In a population-based age- and sex-matched case-control study, all first acute MI patients aged 25 to 74 years were prospectively registered in four Spanish hospitals between 2002 and 2004. Controls were randomly selected from population-based samples recruited during the same period of time. The Minnesota PA questionnaire was administered to assess total energy expenditure in PA and in light-, moderate-, and high-intensity PA. RESULTS: Finally, 1339 cases and 1339 controls were included. The association between PA and MI likelihood was non-linear, with significantly lower MI odds at low practice levels (≥ 500 MET·min/week), lowest odds around 1500 MET·min/week, and a plateau thereafter. Light- (in subjects older than 64 years), moderate-, and high-intensity PA produced similar benefits. CONCLUSION: Most of the population could reduce their likelihood of MI by engaging in PA at a moderate level of intensity or, in individuals older than 64 years, at a light level of intensity.

Socioeconomic differences in incidence and relative survival after a first acute myocardial infarction in the Basque Country, Spain

Objective To estimate the incidence and 28-day and 5-year survival rates after a first acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in relation to socioeconomic status in the Basque Country (Spain) between 1999 and 2000.MethodsData from a population-based registry of AMI were used. The study included 3,619 patients to calculate age-standardized incidence by the direct method and 2,003 patients (out-of-hospital deaths were excluded) to calculate observed and relative survival using the Kaplan-Meier and Hakulinen methods, respectively. Socioeconomic status was quantified using a deprivation index ecologically assigned to each patient according to the census tract of residence at diagnosis of AMI and was categorized into quintiles. Results Among men, the risk of AMI was higher in the lowest socioeconomic group than in the highest socioeconomic group (RR=1.17; 95%CI: 1.02-1.34). In men, a higher risk of death was observed in the middle (Q3; HR=1.60; 95%CI: 1.02-2.51) and low (Q5; HR=1.65; 95%CI: 1.02-2.69) quintiles compared with the least deprived group for age-adjusted survival during the acute phase. In the fully adjusted model, this effect was attenuated and no significant differences were observed in long-term survival. Among women, no significant differences were observed either in incidence or in short- and long-term survival. Conclusions Socioeconomic inequalities were only observed in men in incidence and in survival during the acute phase after an AMI (AU)

Objetivo Estimar la incidencia y la supervivencia a 28 días y 5 años tras un primer infarto agudo de miocardio (IAM) según la posición socioeconómica en el País Vasco entre 1999 y 2000.MétodosUtilizando datos de un registro poblacional de IAM se incluyeron 3.619 pacientes para estimar la incidencia ajustada por edad por el método directo, y 2003 (excluidas las muertes extrahopitalarias) para la supervivencia observada y relativa con el método de Kaplan-Meier y el de Hakulinen, respectivamente. El nivel socioeconómico se definió por un índice de privación ecológicamente asignado a cada paciente según la sección censal de residencia al diagnóstico del IAM, y se categorizó en quintiles. Resultados Los hombres del nivel socioeconómico más bajo tuvieron un mayor riesgo de IAM que los del más alto (RR=1,17; IC95%: 1,02-1,34). En la supervivencia en la fase aguda ajustada por edad, los hombres de los quintiles medio (Q3; HR=1,60; IC95%: 1,02-2,51) y bajo (Q5; HR=1,65; IC95%: 1,02-2,69) presentaron un mayor riesgo de muerte en comparación con el grupo más favorecido. Este efecto se vio atenuado en los modelos completamente ajustados, y no hubo diferencias significativas en la supervivencia a largo plazo. En la mujeres no se hallaron diferencias significativas en la incidencia ni en la supervivencia a corto y largo plazo. Conclusiones Sólo se han observado desigualdades socioeconómicas en los hombres en la incidencia y la supervivencia durante la fase aguda (AU)

Avanzando en la evaluación del impacto en la salud: análisis de las políticas públicas sectoriales del Gobierno Vasco como paso previo a la fase de cribado sistemático / Moving forward in health impact assessment: analysis of the non-health public policies of the Basque Government (Spain) as step prior to systematic screening

La salud no depende sólo de factores biológicos o hábitos de vida. Numerosos factores económicos, sociales, políticos y ambientales configuran la forma de vivir y enfermar de las personas. Así, la salud no es únicamente el resultado de las políticas sanitarias, y por ello las administraciones públicas se interesan cada vez más en conocer el efecto de sus políticas sectoriales en la salud. La evaluación del impacto en la salud es una metodología prospectiva que trata de predecir los impactos en la salud de las políticas para maximizar sus impactos positivos y evitar sus efectos negativos inesperados en la salud. El cribado es la primera fase y tiene especial importancia, porque permite seleccionar las intervenciones que pueden beneficiarse de una evaluación del impacto en la salud completa. Teniendo en cuenta la limitación de los recursos, y que no es posible valorar todas las intervenciones gubernamentales, son esenciales herramientas de priorización. Como primer paso del proceso de validación de una herramienta de cribado sistemático en el contexto español, se presenta el procedimiento de recopilación y tipificación de las políticas públicas no sanitarias planificadas en la octava legislatura del Gobierno Vasco. De las 97 políticas analizadas, el 76% se relacionaba con determinantes estructurales de las desigualdades sociales en salud, el 79% era de naturaleza táctica/operacional, el 67% se dirigía a grupos específicos de población y el 66% estaban ya iniciadas. En relación con el trabajo intersectorial, las percepciones del personal técnico de los departamentos participantes acerca de la iniciativa, de su justificación y del proceso, fueron positivas. Esta primera experiencia ha permitido conocer con mayor detalle la naturaleza de la planificación política no sanitaria en Euskadi como medio para avanzar en la incorporación de la perspectiva de la salud en todas las políticas(AU)

Health not only depends on biologic or lifestyle factors but also on other economic, social, political, and environmental factors that shape the way people live and become ill. Thus, health policies are not the only policies affecting health, and consequently governments are increasingly interested in identifying the effect of other non-health policies on health. Health impact assessment is a prospective methodology that aims to predict the health impacts of policies before their implementation so that modifications can be suggested to maximize positive effects and avoid unexpected negative repercussions on health. The first stage in this process is screening, which can be used to select the interventions that could benefit from complete health impact assessment. Since resources are limited and not all government interventions can be assessed, tools that allow prioritization are essential. As a first stage in the validation of a systematic screening tool for health impact assessment in Spain, this article presents the process of compiling and classifying the non-health public policies of the eighth term of office of the Basque Government. Of the 97 policies analyzed, 76% were related to structural determinants of health inequalities, 79% were tactical or operational, 67% were aimed at specific population groups, and 66% were already implemented. The technical staff of other participating departments perceived the entire process of this initiative and its rationale positively. This initial experience allowed the planning of non-health policies in the Basque Country to be determined in detail as a means to move forward in incorporating impact on health in all policies (AU)

Socioeconomic differences in incidence and relative survival after a first acute myocardial infarction in the Basque Country, Spain.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the incidence and 28-day and 5-year survival rates after a first acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in relation to socioeconomic status in the Basque Country (Spain) between 1999 and 2000. METHODS: Data from a population-based registry of AMI were used. The study included 3,619 patients to calculate age-standardized incidence by the direct method and 2,003 patients (out-of-hospital deaths were excluded) to calculate observed and relative survival using the Kaplan-Meier and Hakulinen methods, respectively. Socioeconomic status was quantified using a deprivation index ecologically assigned to each patient according to the census tract of residence at diagnosis of AMI and was categorized into quintiles. RESULTS: Among men, the risk of AMI was higher in the lowest socioeconomic group than in the highest socioeconomic group (RR=1.17; 95%CI: 1.02-1.34). In men, a higher risk of death was observed in the middle (Q3; HR=1.60; 95%CI: 1.02-2.51) and low (Q5; HR=1.65; 95%CI: 1.02-2.69) quintiles compared with the least deprived group for age-adjusted survival during the acute phase. In the fully adjusted model, this effect was attenuated and no significant differences were observed in long-term survival. Among women, no significant differences were observed either in incidence or in short- and long-term survival. CONCLUSIONS: Socioeconomic inequalities were only observed in men in incidence and in survival during the acute phase after an AMI.

[Moving forward in health impact assessment: analysis of the non-health public policies of the Basque Government (Spain) as step prior to systematic screening]. / Avanzando en la evaluación del impacto en la salud: análisis de las políticas públicas sectoriales del Gobierno Vasco como paso previo a la fase de cribado sistemático.

Health not only depends on biologic or lifestyle factors but also on other economic, social, political, and environmental factors that shape the way people live and become ill. Thus, health policies are not the only policies affecting health, and consequently governments are increasingly interested in identifying the effect of other non-health policies on health. Health impact assessment is a prospective methodology that aims to predict the health impacts of policies before their implementation so that modifications can be suggested to maximize positive effects and avoid unexpected negative repercussions on health. The first stage in this process is screening, which can be used to select the interventions that could benefit from complete health impact assessment. Since resources are limited and not all government interventions can be assessed, tools that allow prioritization are essential. As a first stage in the validation of a systematic screening tool for health impact assessment in Spain, this article presents the process of compiling and classifying the non-health public policies of the eighth term of office of the Basque Government. Of the 97 policies analyzed, 76% were related to structural determinants of health inequalities, 79% were tactical or operational, 67% were aimed at specific population groups, and 66% were already implemented. The technical staff of other participating departments perceived the entire process of this initiative and its rationale positively. This initial experience allowed the planning of non-health policies in the Basque Country to be determined in detail as a means to move forward in incorporating impact on health in all policies.

La evaluación del impacto en la salud: una vía para introducir la salud en todas las políticas. Informe SESPAS 2010 / Health impact assessment: One way to introduce health in all policies. SESPAS Report 2010

La evaluación del impacto en la salud es una herramienta de carácter predictivo, de ayuda a la toma de decisiones. La experiencia acumulada muestra que podría desempeñar un papel primordial en el desarrollo de la estrategia de salud en todas las políticas. La evaluación del impacto en la salud ha sido ampliamente utilizada en otros países europeos, en diversos ámbitos sectoriales y administrativos. En la mayoría de los casos se ha introducido de forma no obligatoria e independiente de otros tipos de evaluación del impacto de las políticas sectoriales. Su uso en España es relativamente reciente, escaso, y principalmente limitado a experiencias en el ámbito local y al cribado de actuaciones de una comunidad autónoma. La reforma normativa y organizativa de la salud pública actualmente en curso en España es una gran oportunidad para impulsar el desarrollo de la evaluación del impacto en la salud. Entre las barreras para su desarrollo destacan el predominio de la visión biomédica de la salud entre los profesionales, los responsables políticos y la población general; la desafección política, la escasa cultura de participación ciudadana y de tradición evaluadora en la elaboración de políticas públicas; y el insuficiente desarrollo del trabajo intersectorial. Dado el potencial de la evaluación del impacto en la salud para avanzar en el logro de una mejor salud poblacional y en la reducción de las desigualdades sociales en salud, deberían dedicarse esfuerzos políticos, formativos y de investigación para que esta evaluación se introduzca y desarrolle en los distintos ámbitos administrativos y sectoriales (AU)

Health impact assessment is a predictive tool to support decisions in policy-making. Current experience shows that health impact assessment could play an important role in the development of the Health in All Policies strategy. This strategy has been extensively used in other European countries and in a wide range of policy and administrative sectors. Health impact assessment is hardly ever mandatory and is frequently carried out separately from other impact assessments. The use of this process in Spain is relatively new, limited and fundamentally based on local level experiences and the screening of regional interventions. The current normative and organizational reform of public health in Spain provides an excellent opportunity to promote the development of health impact assessment. Some of the barriers to the development of this process are related to the biomedical model of health prevailing among health professionals, politicians, and the general population, political disaffection, lack of assessment culture, underdevelopment of community participation processes, and insufficient intersectoral work. Health impact assessment provides an opportunity to move toward improving the population’s health and reducing inequalities in health. Consequently, political commitment, as well as investment in education and research, is needed to introduce and develop health impact assessment in all administrative settings and policy sectors (AU)

[Health impact assessment: one way to introduce health in all policies. SESPAS Report 2010]. / La evaluación del impacto en la salud: una vía para introducir la salud en todas las políticas. Informe SESPAS 2010.

Health impact assessment is a predictive tool to support decisions in policy-making. Current experience shows that health impact assessment could play an important role in the development of the Health in All Policies strategy. This strategy has been extensively used in other European countries and in a wide range of policy and administrative sectors. Health impact assessment is hardly ever mandatory and is frequently carried out separately from other impact assessments. The use of this process in Spain is relatively new, limited and fundamentally based on local level experiences and the screening of regional interventions. The current normative and organizational reform of public health in Spain provides an excellent opportunity to promote the development of health impact assessment. Some of the barriers to the development of this process are related to the biomedical model of health prevailing among health professionals, politicians, and the general population, political disaffection, lack of assessment culture, underdevelopment of community participation processes, and insufficient intersectoral work. Health impact assessment provides an opportunity to move toward improving the population's health and reducing inequalities in health. Consequently, political commitment, as well as investment in education and research, is needed to introduce and develop health impact assessment in all administrative settings and policy sectors.

Sex differences in relative survival and prognostic factors in patients with a first acute myocardial infarction in Guipuzcoa, Spain.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: To determine 28-day and 5-year survival rates in patients who have experienced a first acute myocardial infarction and to identify prognostic factors for survival. METHODS: This study involved 1,677 patients with a first acute myocardial infarction who were treated at a hospital in Guipuzcoa, Spain between 1997 and 2000. RESULTS: Women were approximately 10 years older than men, presented more often with diabetes and hypertension, were in a less favorable clinical condition, and consumed fewer medical resources, but were less likely to smoke. Survival rates at 28 days and 5 years were higher in men over 60 years of age. In the period from 29 days to 5 years, the relative survival rate was higher in men from all age groups. Factors associated with short- and long-term survival varied between the sexes. Disease severity in the acute phase and, later on, age were associated with survival in both men and women, whereas the effect of other variables differed between the sexes. CONCLUSIONS: Myocardial infarction is a condition associated with high mortality in the acute phase. There is an interaction between sex and age that affects survival after an acute myocardial infarction. A number of factors are associated with poor short- and long-term prognoses in both sexes.

Diferencias por sexo en la supervivencia relativa y los factores pronósticos de pacientes con un primer infarto agudo de miocardio en Guipúzcoa / Sex differences in relative survival and prognostic factors in patients with a first acute myocardial infarction in Guipuzcoa, Spain

Introducción y objetivos. Estimar la supervivencia a los 28 días y a los 5 años y los factores pronósticos asociados en personas que han sufrido un primer infarto agudo de miocardio. Métodos. Se estudió a 1.677 pacientes con un primer infarto agudo de miocardio que accedieron a un hospital de Guipúzcoa entre 1997 y 2000. Resultados. Las mujeres eran unos 10 años mayores, presentaron más diabetes mellitus e hipertensión y un cuadro clínico más desfavorable y recibieron menos recursos terapéuticos, aunque eran menos fumadoras que los varones. La supervivencia fue superior entre los varones mayores de 60 años a los 28 días y a los 5 años. En el periodo de 29 días a 5 años, los varones de todos los grupos de edad presentaron una supervivencia relativa más larga. Los factores relacionados con la supervivencia a corto y largo plazo difirieron entre uno y otro sexo. La gravedad de la enfermedad en la fase aguda y la edad en la fase tardía fueron factores relacionados con la supervivencia de varones y mujeres y en el resto de las variables el comportamiento fue distinto entre uno y otro sexo. Conclusiones. El infarto es una enfermedad con una elevada mortalidad en la fase aguda. Existe una interacción entre el sexo y la edad que afecta a la supervivencia tras un infarto agudo de miocardio. Varios factores se asocian a un peor pronóstico precoz y tardío en ambos sexos (AU)

Introduction and objectives. To determine 28-day and 5-year survival rates in patients who have experienced a first acute myocardial infarction and to identify prognostic factors for survival. Methods. This study involved 1,677 patients with a first acute myocardial infarction who were treated at a hospital in Guipuzcoa, Spain between 1997 and 2000. Results. Women were approximately 10 years older than men, presented more often with diabetes and hypertension, were in a less favorable clinical condition, and consumed fewer medical resources, but were less likely to smoke. Survival rates at 28 days and 5 years were higher in men over 60 years of age. In the period from 29 days to 5 years, the relative survival rate was higher in men from all age groups. Factors associated with short- and long-term survival varied between the sexes. Disease severity in the acute phase and, later on, age were associated with survival in both men and women, whereas the effect of other variables differed between the sexes. Conclusions. Myocardial infarction is a condition associated with high mortality in the acute phase. There is an interaction between sex and age that affects survival after an acute myocardial infarction. A number of factors are associated with poor short- and long-term prognoses in both sexes (AU)